External Infusion Pump
An external infusion pump may be medically necessary for the administration of various medications, intravenously or subcutaneously. Such external infusion devices are used when parenteral administration of the drug at home is reasonable and/or necessary, when it is required that an infusion pump safely administers the drug, and/or when the drug is administered by a prolonged infusion (e.g., during at least 8 hours) because of proven clinical efficacy.
External infusion pumps (“EIP”) can be used, particularly in a non-hospital setting, to administer antibiotics, chemotherapy, analgesics and opioids, total parenteral nutrition formulas, insulin, vasopressors, blood products, growth hormone, gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), interferon γ, and other drugs or biologics for which delivery at a controlled rate of the fluid is desirable or necessary. Functional EIP infusion rates range from high volume delivery rates (400 mL/h) for hydration therapy to very low flow rates (0.04 mL/h) that can be used for delivery chemotherapeutic agents.
Diabetes and Glycemic Control
The term Diabetes mellitus (“DM”) refers to a group of common metabolic disorders that share the phenotype of hyperglycemia. Several distinct types of DM exist and are caused by complex interaction of genetics, environmental factors, and life-style. The metabolic dysregulation associated with all types of DM, especially when glucose levels are uncontrolled, causes secondary pathophysiologic changes in multiple organ systems that impose a tremendous burden on the individual with diabetes and on the health care system. In the United States, DM is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD), nontraumatic lower extremity amputations, and adult blindness. With an increasing incidence worldwide, DM will be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality for the foreseeable future.
The two broad categories of DM are designated type 1 and type 2. Generally speaking, type 1 DM results from autoimmune beta cell destruction, whereas type 2 DM is a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by variable degrees of insulin resistance, impaired insulin secretion, and increased glucose production.
Type 1 DM
Type 1 DM develops as a result of the synergistic effects of genetic, environmental, and immunologic factors that ultimately destroy the pancreatic beta cells. Individuals with a genetic susceptibility have normal beta cell mass at birth but begin to lose beta cells secondary to autoimmune destruction that occurs over months to years. As beta cell mass begins to decline, insulin secretion becomes progressively impaired. Features of diabetes generally do not become evident until a majority of beta cells are destroyed (˜80%).
Because individuals with type 1 DM lack endogenous insulin production, administration of basal, exogenous insulin is essential for regulating glycogen breakdown, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, and ketogenesis. Likewise, insulin replacement for meals should be appropriate for the carbohydrate intake and promote normal glucose utilization and storage. A goal of intensive diabetes management is to achieve euglycemia or near-normal glycemia. This approach requires insulin regimen that matches glucose intake and insulin dose. Insulin regimens usually include multiple-component insulin regimens, multiple daily injections (MDI), or insulin infusion devices (Harrison's principles of internal medicine, 16th edition, chapter 323).
The benefits of intensive diabetes management and improved glycemic control has been shown in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) that demonstrated that development and progression of the chronic complications of diabetes are greatly related to the degree of altered glycemia as quantified by determinations of glycohemoglobin (HbA1c). [DCCT Trial, N. Engl. J. Med, 1993; 329: 977-986, UKPDS Trial, Lancet 1998; 352: 837-853. BMJ 1998; 317, (7160): 703-13 and the EDIC Trial, N. Engl. S. Med. 2005; 353, (25): 2643-53].
In all MDI regimens, intermediate—or long-acting insulins (e.g., NPH, lente, ultralente, or glargine insulin) supply basal insulin, whereas short acting insulin (e., regular, insulin aspart, or lispro insulin) provides prandial insulin. Lispro and insulin aspart should be injected just before or just after a meal; regular insulin dosages are given 30 to 45 min prior to a meal. No insulin MDI regimen reproduces the precise insulin secretory pattern of the pancreatic islet. However, the most physiologic regimens entail more frequent insulin injections, greater reliance on short-acting insulin, and more frequent capillary plasma glucose measurements (Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th edition, chapter 323).
In recent years, ambulatory portable insulin infusion pumps have emerged as a superior alternative to multiple daily injections of insulin. These pumps, which deliver insulin at a continuous or periodic basal rate, as well as in bolus volumes, were developed to liberate patients from repeated self-administered injections, and allow greater flexibility in dose administration. The insulin infused via the insulin pump is usually a short acting insulin (e.g., insulin aspart, lispro insulin).
Currently, about 80% of Type 1 DM patients are managed with MDI, whereas only about 20% are managed with insulin pumps.
Type 2 DM
Type 2 DM is characterized by impaired insulin secretion, peripheral insulin resistance, and excessive hepatic glucose production. Obesity, particularly visceral or central is very common in type 2 DM.
Insulin resistance can be defined as a decreased ability of insulin to act effectively on peripheral target tissues (especially muscle and liver). In the early stages of the disorder, glucose tolerance remains normal, despite insulin resistance, because the pancreatic beta cells compensate by increasing insulin output. As insulin resistance and compensatory hyperinsulinemia progress, the pancreatic islets are unable to sustain the hyperinsulinemic state. Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT), characterized by elevations in postprandial glucose, then develops. A further decline in insulin secretion and an increase in hepatic glucose production may lead to overt diabetes with fasting hyperglycemia. Ultimately, beta cell failure may ensue.
Increased hepatic glucose production in Type 2 DM may be due to the failure of hyperinsulinemia to suppress gluconeogenesis in the liver as a result of the insulin resistance. Type 2 DM management can begin with medical nutritional therapy (“MNT”) and increased physical activity. If not sufficient to achieve glycemic control, pharmacologic therapy is indicated. Pharmacologic approaches to the management of type 2 DM include the administration of both oral glucose-lowering agents and insulin. Usually oral drugs are initiated first.
Several types of oral glucose-lowering agents that target different pathophysiologic processes in Type 2 DM exist. These include agents that increase insulin secretion (e.g., sulfonylurea), reduce glucose production (e.g., metformin), decrease glucose absorption (e.g., acarbose) and/or increase insulin sensitivity (e.g., pioglitazone).
Insulin Therapy can be considered as the initial therapy in situations involving, for example, lean individuals or individual experiencing severe weight loss, situations involving individuals with underlying renal or hepatic disease that precludes oral glucose-lowering agents, or in situations involving individuals who are hospitalized or acutely ill. Insulin therapy is ultimately required by a substantial number of individuals with Type 2 DM because of the progressive nature of the disorder and the relative insulin deficiency that develops in patients with long-standing diabetes. (Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th edition, chapter 323).
The United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS), one of the largest and longest trial ever conducted in patients with type 2 diabetes, found that for each 1% reduction in hemoglobin A1C, there was a significant decrease in diabetic complications. (BMJ 1995; 310(6972): 83-8). A decline in MC was best achieved by early exogenous insulin therapy.
Despite the increased risk of mild hypoglycemia, aggressive therapy that combines patient education and self-management with a form of exogenous insulin that closely mimics normal insulin secretion can help to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with type 2 diabetes. (Clinical Diabetes 2003; 21:14-21).
Pramlintide Acetate (Symlin)
Amylin is a second β-cell hormone that is co-localized and co-secreted with insulin in response to meals. Consequently, β-cell dysfunction in insulin-requiring subjects with type 1 or type 2 diabetes is characterized by a markedly impaired postprandial secretory response of both insulin and amylin. Amylin acts as a neuroendocrine hormone that complements the effects of insulin in postprandial glucose regulation through several centrally mediated effects. These include a suppression of postprandial glucagon secretion and a vagus-mediated regulation of gastric emptying, thereby helping to control the influx of endogenous and exogenous glucose, respectively. Amylin has also been shown to reduce food intake and body weight, consistent with an additional satiety effect. Consistent with these findings, mealtime amylin replacement, as an adjunctive therapy to insulin, may improve metabolic control in diabetic subjects.
Pramlintide is a soluble, non-aggregating synthetic peptide analog of human amylin that has a potency at least equal to that of native amylin. Pramlintide in insulin-requiring subjects with diabetes has been shown, as an adjunct to insulin therapy, to correct postprandial hyperglucagonemia, slow the delivery of nutrients from the stomach to the small intestine, and, concomitantly, improve postprandial glucose excursions, (Diab, Tech. Therp. 2002; 4(1):51-61). Pramlintide is injected subcutaneously with a standard insulin syringe, rendering the dosage flexible.
Exentide
Incretins are gut-derived factors that increase glucose stimulated insulin secretion. Exentide (byetta) is an incretin mimetic that increases insulin secretion, increase beta cell growth/replication, slows gastric emptying, and may decrease food intake. Exentide is indicated as an adjunctive therapy to improve glycemic control in type 2 diabetic patients who are taking one or more of the following oral anti-diabetic drugs: Metformin, sulfonylurea, thiazolidinedione. Exentide is administered before a meal as a subcutaneous injection.
Insulin Pumps
Currently available insulin pumps, developed mainly for type 1 DM patients, deliver rapid acting insulin 24 hours-a-day through a catheter placed under the skin (i.e., subcutaneously). The total daily insulin dose can be divided into basal and bolus doses.
Basal insulin is delivered continuously over 24 hours, and keeps the blood glucose concentration levels (in brief blood glucose levels) in normal desirable range between meals and overnight. Basal insulin delivery rate can be changed during the day to counteract changing diurnal insulin requirements, for example during physical activity, sleeping, etc. Moreover, a specific daily basal administration curve can be stored (designated as a “basal profile”) and retrieved upon patient discretion.
Insulin bolus doses are delivered before or after meals to counteract carbohydrates loads or during episodes of high blood glucose concentration levels. Current pumps contain electronic components and are provided with the necessary software to precisely calculate bolus doses according to meal size and carbohydrate content.
Due to the fact that Type 2 DM patients usually have some residual endogenous insulin, the basal/bolus administration mode of currently existing pumps is unnecessary, for the following reasons:                1. Most patients have enough insulin to sustain the basal requirements of the body but not to counteract the carbohydrates consumed in meals.        2. Basal requirements are usually met by a single long acting insulin injection per day (i.e., Glargine, Detemir).        3. Precise bolus dosing is of no clinical relevance because the amount of residual endogenous insulin and insulin resistance are unknown,        4. Conventional insulin pumps are costly, particularly because they include relatively expensive electronic components which are mainly used to control basal administration.For these reasons, DM type 2 patients tend not to use insulin pumps.        
Under some circumstances, conventional insulin pumps, although developed primarily for Type 1 DM patients, may not be appropriate for all Type 1 DM patients, for the following reasons:                1. The underlying technology involved makes currently available pumps relatively expensive and therefore not adequate for low budget patients.        2. The underlying technological sophistication of currently available pumps require learning of the many installed features, an endeavor that makes many individuals uncomfortable with the use of these devices (i.e., fear of technology).        3. A major drawback of currently available pumps is their large size and weight, caused in part by numerous electronic components and the relatively large driving mechanism of these devices. These uncomfortable bulky fluid delivery devices are rejected by many diabetic insulin users.        